Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact

Leo Kanner was the first who discovered Autism as a distinct case in the 1940s and brought out a report narrating the disorder which he stated as â€Å"Autistic disturbances of affective contact'. (Keane, 2004) Presently Autism falls third among the list of childhood disorders, after mental handicap and language difficulties. (Zager, 2005) Autism is an intricate disorder of mental development which is defined in terms of behavior. Autism spectrum disorder – ASD is a broad expression which covers a diverse mix of children having such manifestations and numerous biological etiologies. Hollander, 2003) Diagnosis of ASD can be unfailingly done when the child attains the age of 3, and in certain instances much previously by the age of 18 months. Researchers recommend that several children ultimately may be conclusively detected while attaining 1 year or much less than that. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)) Collectively, children detected as having ASD can be distinguished by dearth of proficiency in vocal and non-vocal communications at an early age, socio-communicative function, and monotonous behaviors. Hollander, 2003) It is the parents who are the first witnesses of these queer behaviors in their children. In certain instances, differences could be discovered congenitally, as being indifferent to humans or concentrating on a particular thing attentively for extended periods of time. The initial signals of an ASD can also be seen in children who appear to have a normal development. If a charming, blathering child, at once turns mum, reserved, self-abusive, or aloof to social advances, matters are not right. The manifestation of any of the cautioning signals of ASD constitutes sufficient worry to get the child examined by a professional expert in dealing with the disorder. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)) The National Institute of Mental Health – NIML holds that the accurate incidence of Autism is not known. Estimations range from 1 among 500 to 1 among 1,000 in this nation, and the number of autism affected persons is spiraling. Even though there are differences on the issue of the rise in the number of children seen as possessing the indications of autism is because of the rise of the disorder itself, improved investigative tests, greater inclusive classification procedures, wrong diagnosis, or some mishmash of these, there is no disagreement on the reality that considerable number of people are affected by Autism in this nation. (Steuernagel, 2005) As of now, cure of Autism is nowhere in sight. Treatment or interventions are formulated to cure particular symptoms in every individual. The treatment procedures that are best studied comprise educational, behavioral and biomedical interventions. Even though these interventions do not have any cure for autism, they sometimes cause considerable enhancement. A lot of approaches stress on extremely planned and frequently intensive skill oriented training which is customized to the child on a case to case basis. (Autism Interventions) Given the right intervention, a child will be able to surmount a broad variety of developmental difficulties. Rigorous, properly devised, and interventions administered in time hold promise for bettering the prospects and the value of life, in the case of a lot of children who are believed to be in danger for cognitive, social, or emotional damage. (Zager, 2005) In certain instances, useful intervention is able to better the plight earlier believed to be almost beyond treatment, like autism. Properly administered programs have possibilities to cheer up the future of a child and the outcome a development disorder puts on the family. The outcome of this can bring a child more liberty, help that child to be taken into the community, and present an increasingly fruitful and satisfying life. Regrettably, a lot of pediatric doctors are unable to detect a developmental disorder, like autism at an age when it is high time to get quicker intervention services. From birth till 3 years happen to be a crucial period in the development of a child, hence if detected late has increased chances to put the odds for success in jeopardy. (Zager, 2005) Interventions for autism has progressed much since the disorder was stated by Kanner in the 1940s. Then Autism was believed to be intimately associated with schizophrenia and insufficient parenting was seen as the main factor responsible for the disorder. Psychoanalysis was frequently chosen as the treatment mode, however large-scale consumption of drugs were found and also electroconvulsive treatments were prescribed for application in schizophrenia cases. (Bovk; Goode, 2003) A lot of medications have been administered to alleviate autistic indications and activities having autism. However, presently no pharmacological treatments with proven suggestions are available for autism. Nevertheless, psychotropic drugs have been applied in autistic persons to cure main symptoms, behavioral dyscontrol, cure of simultaneous psychiatric ailments, and management of related clinical states like seizures. Drugs treating depression, especially serotonin -reuptake inhibitors – SRIs, and anticonvulsant drugs constitute the drugs generally applied for autism spectrum behaviors. (Hollander, 2003) The SRIs administered cover fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, paroxetine, venlafaxine, sertraine, and clomipramine. Several of these formulations have been researched in an open-label as also double-blind manner. The consequences of these researches on the whole point out that these drugs works while treating some of the indications of individuals having autism spectrum disorders. Anticonvulsants like valproic acid and carbamazepine are applied especially in people having comorbid seizure disorder, as also those suffering from impulsive violence and emotional imbalance. But, there has not been any placebo-controlled trials reported till today which assess the effectiveness of these drugs. Besides, the uncharacteristic antipsychotics have been found to be extremely effective adjunctive cure for autistics people, particularly at the time of treating acute indications like physical violence and self-injury. Medical treatment, nevertheless, is at times intricate by their susceptibility to result in putting on weight and several other undesirable causes. (Hollander, 2003) Biomedical intervention for treating autism cases comprise of a broad variety of therapeutic systems for the treatment and according to some suggest curing autism among children, adolescents and maybe adults. The source for this type of intervention is a carefully chosen food habit which permits for regular absorption of nutrients; however several associated treatment procedures are also widespread. Biomedical interventions normally begin with a limiting diet like the diet free from gluten and casein. (Biomedical intervention for autism) Normally, foods will be controlled in a specific order, for instance by not giving: Diary products-for both in lactoseare regarded to cause problems; Glutten consisting of grains like oats, barley, rye, spelt, wheat, and so on; Eggs, nuts as well as berries which frequently induce allergic effects among children; Fruits and vegetables that have salicylates, phenols and other stuffs which might trigger a reaction; Every food having artificial colors like the Feingold Diet, and all bi- and poly-saccharides, like lactose, fructose, starch and the like. Parents state mixed success with these diet, and mishmash of them. Several among them have witnessed total cure just by avoiding milk, while others are required to do away with salicylates or phenols to attain a tilting stage; others have seen a practicable, efficient food pattern in the particular Carbohydrate diet. Many however report that no advantages are derived from controlled diet. As the gastrointestinal system is considered to be damaged in autistic children, a lot of parents and medical professionals consider it useful to feed nutritional supplements to their children. (Biomedical intervention for autism) The variety of supplements provided to autistic children undertaking biomedical intervention is broad, however can be classified as: 1. Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamins specifically B-complex, and others in RDA doses. 2. Minerals, especially Calcium, Zinc, Magnesium, and other trace minerals like Molybdenum and so on. 3. Essential Fatty acids available in supplements like Borage Oil, Fish Liver Oil and Flax seed oil. 4. Probiotics – disagreement exists regarding the advantages and the possible damages of some bacteria strains vs others, however majority have the same opinion that acidophilus is needed. 5 Anti-yeast supplements- mixed success has been stated by parents with antifungal medications, however are more excited regarding the natural cures found in Caprylic acid, Garlic, seed extract of grapes and products like Biocidin. It is observed that majority of the children appear to gain from a carefully chosen diet and judicious use of nutritional supplements, increased differences is found in other alleged â€Å"alternative† medical systems. The most usual of these are Craniosacral therapy/Osteopathy, Homoeopathy, applied kinesology and Chelation. (Biomedical intervention for autism) Results of intense research findings opine that autistic children need personalized, individual teaching to deal with the distinctness of their interaction, social behavioral and impairment related to learning. In situations where autistic children are given thorough early intervention which is particularly intended to fulfill the spectrum of their requirements, the pace of the growth of children can be improved and might result in enhanced lasting diagnosis. Suitable interventions meant for children having autism must be initiated as soon as possible to benefit from the â€Å"window of opportunity† which is present at the time when the brain of the child is in the growth stage and is flexible. Stephens, 2002) In case of children who are less than 3 years of age, suitable interventions normally happen at home or a child care centre. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)) The best researched intervention for this disorder at the moment is behavioral treatment. With the passage of time, autism has been acknowledged as an ailment of development, interventions have concentrated on improving development expertise and on means to alleviate behavioral problems. (Bov k; Goode, 2003) Autistic children have been observed to be receptive to a broad range of interventions intended at improving their social rendezvous with others, adults as well as peers. Fruitful policies applying peer-mediated approaches and mentoring by peers have engaged characteristically developing peers. Besides, a lot of researches have proven that social involvement has a direct bearing on other vital behaviors such as language, even when these behaviors are not particularly attended by the teaching program. Therefore, while a realm of intense participation, social behavior is also receptive to intervention. (Rogers, 2001) Acknowledgement of the contribution that language problems specifically is responsible for behavior problem, had given rise to a pointing on the teaching of increased efficient communication skills. (Bovk; Goode, 2003) According to the Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General: thirty years of research proved the effectiveness of applied behavioral procedures in lowering suitable behavior and in enhancing communication, learning, and proper social behavior. The fundamental research performed by Ivar Lovaas and his associates at the University of California, Los Angeles, demanding for a thorough individual child-teacher communications lasting for 40 hours every week, built the base for other educators and researchers in the quest for more efficient initial interventions to assist those having ASD reach their capabilities. The objective of behavioral management is to strengthen wanted behaviors and eliminate the unwanted behaviors. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)) Over 550 peer-referred data-based assessments have been released by the research professionals on behavioral treatment, and these assessments have demonstrated that the treatment gives a broad array of advantages. For instance, it assists a majority of the individuals with autism to interact with others, stay occupied in play and recreational pursuits with peers and caregivers, undertake self-care involvements like toileting and wearing dresses, achieve scholarly and vocational proficiencies, and handle unruly conducts like peevishness or characteristic behaviors. Taken from a behavioral standpoint, people with autism are laid with genetic injuries which lower their potential and determination to educate themselves in manners that normally developing children and adults do. Specifically, people with autism develop meager dexterity or keenness to enjoy playing in a creative manner, interacting, idolizing the activities of other people, discovering their environments, paying attention to the directives of their teachers, or engaging themselves in reading books on subjects that are new to them. (Hollander, 2003) Because of this, the most fundamental objective of behavioral treatment is giving learning circumstances which help people with autism to be a winner which will encourage them to keep on learning. Since a lot of interventions developed for persons having autism have found not to be so fruitful or even detrimental, behavioral practitioners consider that it is important to apply interventions whose advantages have been recorded in controlled researches and that are obtained from better principles from a scientific perspective regarding the manner on how to encourage learning. Besides, they regard that the impact of these interventions are required to be evaluated cautiously in case of every individual having autism who gets them. Behavioral evaluation and cure are normally executed by paraprofessionals who perform under the watchful guidance of professional behavior analysts. (Hollander, 2003) Broad based school, home and community requirements order a personalized and wide-ranging evaluation procedure so as to guarantee treatment planning. Fruitful and useful evaluation work need effort and involvement by professionals as well as family members. Improved evaluation procedures, inclusive of more increased application of filtering apparatus, broader accessibility of services, and increasingly informed service providers, individuals who really have idea regarding autism and assisting families with autism, everybody have a share in putting up an encouraging account. School programs are more and more encompassing while being receptive to autism, in that extending much needed services in less restraining settings. Inclusion practices, together with improved transition facilities, permit people having autism to attain at stages which have not been believed to happen until lately. Parents are inclined to be vehemently occupied in assisting their child and keen to learn the manner in which to impart competence and organize settings. (Zager, 2005) In order to appreciate the child's privileges in the public schools of America, it helps to begin with one of the basic regulations ruling the education of children with deficiencies: the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act — P. L. 101-476. IDEA has been enacted as a federal law which assures without any cost and suitable public education meant for each child having deficiencies. This implies that in case one admits his child in a public school, his/her education will be free and must be suitable for his/her age, potential and level of development. IDEA is an improved edition of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act — P. L. 94-142 enacted in 1975. During 1997, IDEA was again sanctioned authority — P. L. 105-17, went ahead in defining rights of children to educational services and stressing the contribution of parents in the educational planning methods for their children. (IDEA and your child's rights) To conclude, a distinct appreciation of intervention effects might presently be impeded by the absence of accuracy in the calibration of results. In order to enhance the accuracy and sensitivity of evaluation of results, it might be helpful to combine research on the type of social commotion of autism with study on intervention. An efficient treatment program will develop in the interests of the child, present an expected schedule, impart responsibilities as a sequence of easy steps, keenly involve the child's interest in extremely systemized activities, and give usual strengthening of behavior.

Assignment Supporting Change Within Organisations Essay

It was once said that the only constant is change which is true. This change can be a major change or a subtle one, either way change is still constant. The need for change can either be a voluntary or prompted by the organisation, these are also known as internal and external drivers. With internal the decision and outcome lies with the company however when it comes to external drivers these are out with the company’s control and they have no say over it. Impact of change The impact of change can have a huge effect on the company but also with the employees and one of the greatest challenges to companies is helping employees deal with this change. Any kind of change within an organisation can affect employees in different ways some may find the changes positive and approach it with enthusiasm but the majority will struggle with change and react negatively. These can vary from confusion, conflict, stress, fear of losing their job, lack of motivation, declined self-confidence and loss of trust between the employee and company. need for change Internal Factors As stated previously, there are many reasons for change within a company and V.Group has recently decided to rebrand the whole international company as well as globally restructure within the company too. The main internal driver for this was global influence as V. Group felt this would be an opportunity to help global partnerships recognise how vast and diverse V.Group is as previously each subsidiary company under the V.Group umbrella had its own individual logo however looking at it from a customer’s point of view they did not know each of these companies where part of the same group in turn globally ensuring its customers recognise their brand. Another internal reason was to ensure processes, systems; IT and communication were all consistent throughout the whole company. As there are many offices worldwide, it was also another good reason to bring the company closer together as one and ensure everything was unified. V.Group’s decision to restructure also had an internal driver. They saw a weakness in their processes and procedures which were not consistent throughout the whole group. In order to ensure a consistent and solid approach going forward, they have decided to allocate HR Consultants for four different regions of the world which would mean these consultants would be more accessible to the existing HR local reps and the consultants would make sure the local HR reps consistently follow the V.Group procedure throughout. External Factors Apart from internal drivers there are also external drivers that can have an impact on a company which means the business has no control over. One external driver is Technological as V.Group’s need to ensure their customers and potential client are aware of all V.Group’s services therefore the most effective way to do this is through social media and the company’s website. need for change Within the Economic factor, changes to the economy can have an impact. We have employees all over world therefore when this declines it can make the  company reflect and assess how many skilled or non-skilled employees there are and if they are truly needed. The Environmental factor could have an influence our company too and how it operates. Any climate change can have an impact on the ships we are managing on behalf of clients. If we have an agreement where we have promised a client we can manage and maintain a ship on their behalf but failed to provide this due to weather restrictions then this can affect the client / customer relationship. change impacting the business Change can affect businesses in different ways and there are many reasons. One change can be an organisational re-structure, where there may be many redundancies or more positively existing employees being given the opportunity to be promoted. Either way this can have an impact at all levels in the company. Another change can be, working policies and procedures where at present they might not reflect the company in the best light therefore it can damage the company’s reputation. Another change could be mergers and take-overs which can sometimes leave employees feeling uncertain about their future with the company, loss of trust and experience staff leaving. main factors With any change there are many factors involved within the process itself however communication has to be the key factor involved in the change process. Without this you cannot expect line managers or employees to support the change. With communication you need to ensure employees feel positive. It is also good practice the company adapts its style of communication depending on their audience and where they are in the change. Where one style might suit senior management, this might not be appropriate for administrators or cleaners. Communication can have a huge impact on the end result, it can also help to ensure targets are met, everything is kept in control and no employee disregards the change. Lack of communication could lead to frustration and lack of trust with employees. An additional factor is positively selling the change and setting the  direction the company is heading in. Within this you need to research and investigate potential threats or obstacles what could happen in the future and then communication this to employees to ensure their buy in. Another key factor is mobilisation. Ensuring that before the change process begin there is enough resources to deliver. This can be down to current premises might be too small, training might be required on a new IT system or existing employees might need re-training. Training will not only help with mobilisation but it will also help employees feel motivated and feel valued by the company. COMPARE AND CONTRAST Change is viewed in many different ways and over the years there have been different models and theories on how it is best handled. Developed by Bullock and Batten in 1985 they provided a framework on how each phase should be tackled. Their three main phases are: Exploration Phase Planning Phase Action Phase When V.Group began their re-structure they followed these phases quite similarly. They initially reviewed and verified what change was needed, who it would affect and what exactly would be involved. In this step the V.Group executive board initially sat down and discussed at length why this change was needed and would it benefit the company long term. Once this was then agreed, they then agreed what actions would be needed and subsequently their consequences too. With this phase it was decided over the course of several month that key members of senior management would hold planning meetings to discuss various issues or present different ideas with a view of presenting this to the executive board once complete. Finally for the action phase, local meetings were held by each manager for their team to advise / present the new structure. After reviewing V.Group’s approach to this, it could have been approached slightly differently and this might have helped the transition run smoother. Initially the executive board sat down to discuss the change however once this was done they could have also had various  meetings with senior management to obtain a different view point but to also help prevent any behaviour responses like fear and lack of trust and ensure they felt included. Within the next stage key senior management could have kept other members of senior management up to date with progress. It is understood that not every member of senior management throughout V.Group could be involved however to ensure other non-selected members were updated regularly would have helped with communication throughout. When they final phase was introduce, to present locally was the best approach however they could have also asked for feedback and reviews from employees. This would make them feel involved even at this late stage. BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES There are many behaviour responses in which employees can show when change occurs within an organisation. The main one being fear. This can be merely fair of the unknown as they are used working a certain way and fear the unknown. There might also be lower levels of employee morale due to lack of communication from management or no support or presence from their line manager. Another response is the Psychological Contract which can have a negative impact. Most employees work under a mutual respect ‘unwritten’ where they might come in early or work late to finish some work without being paid however a negative impact can mean these employees would decide as they are not being paid for it then they would not work it. HR SUPPORT There are many ways HR can support employees on all levels during change. Within V.Group HR help employees by providing coaching on seeking new employment. HR can also be an advisor and give guidance to line managers or employees who need it. We can also provide support by listening, counselling, and supporting line managers. HR also provide administrative subtle support in background whether this be from providing a reference to a new employer to ensuring all their details are up to date and correct.

Enviromental Policy and Regulation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enviromental Policy and Regulation - Essay Example As a means of integrating with such a question, this particular essay will analyze the extent to which the Magnuson – Stevens Act of 1976 has helped to protect the environment to which it was intended to preserve. In order to measure the underlying effectiveness of this act, the author will seek to review the determinant components of the Magnuson – Stevens Act, the subsequent amendments and bills that it has given birth to, the level to which the legislation has been able to ameliorate the issues that it set out to address, and the ultimately whether the legislation can be considered a success, failure, or partial success. Firstly, before delving into measuring whether or the legislation has helped to address the issues that it sought to integrate with, it is necessary for the student o provide a thorough overview of all of the aspects of United States fisheries and protected areas that the legislation sought to address. As such, the Magnuson – Stevens Act of 19 76 can ultimately be broken down into the following 5 component parts: Acting to conserve fishery resources Supporting enforcement of international fishing agreements Promoting fishing in line with conservation principles Providing for the implementation of fishery management plans (FMPs), which achieve optimal yield Establishing Regional Fisher Management Councils to steward fishery resources through the preparation, monitoring, and revising of plans which (A) enable stakeholders to participate in the administration of fishers and (B) consider social and economic needs of states As a function of such a broad approach, the bill can be understood to seek to identify with three functional areas of fishery conservation, 1) the international level that seeks to bring the interpretation of international fishery management in line with what the United States projected in domestic law, 2) seeking to engage in an framework for which the federal government could seek to provide a level of ov erarching conservation within the states and territories it was responsible for and finally, 3) seeking to integrate this framework with respect to the many differentiated rules that had developed within the individual states (Tromble, 2012). As with many layers of legislation that have introduced over the years, the ultimate success of the act cannot be understood in a two dimensional explanation of whether it has been effective or whether it has not been effective. Instead, the overall success and result of the Magnuson – Stevens Act of 1976 varies dependent upon the different regions and fish stocks within the United States. However, as a means of the evolving level of success, the government has been able to integrate with amendments to the bill both in 1996 and 2006; thereby the disenfranchised regions of the nation and fish stocks that were still suffering and left out of the specific rubric of the bill have been integrated with in a far more successful manner than was exhibited when the bill was first passed into law. This amendment process signifies a vital component of the legislation that ultimately bequeaths it with a far greater degree of success than it would otherwise realize (Rouch, 2012). Due to the fact that new fisheries are developed and near exhaustion on a regular basis, the bill requires that amendments must be made in order to integrate the current realities of conservation with the law that seeks to protect the component parts of the

Parent Preparedness When Discussing Child's Sexual Education Essay

Parent Preparedness When Discussing Child's Sexual Education - Essay Example Right when parents begin to assume their responsibility in educating the child, the children seek an escape and thus, generate a communication gap that lead to lack of knowledge transmitted form parent to child. Another argument that sex education supporters raise is that the success rate of abstinence only program are low. One cannot observe any significant difference between individuals who enroll and who do not in this program. In order to frame a sex education program for school counseling, it is a recommendation that one starts with the most basic knowledge and then progresses to higher level of complexities. A very important perspective that needs attention here is the preparedness of parents in terms of educating their children. Experts believe that parents can play a crucial role in teaching children about sex. Introduction The paper aims to address the importance of sex education in adolescence. With the growing number of cases of sexual abuse and rapes, the matter is a pres sing concern for schools and parents all over the world as it is their responsibility to educate the child beforehand. ... Studies by World Health Organization reveal the contribution of healthy sexual development to overall well being of an individual. According to the U.S. Surgeon General, David Satcher, â€Å"sexual health is inextricably bound to both physical and mental health,† (Moore & Rosenthal, 2006). In terms of definition, sexual education refers to "education about human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities, abstinence, contraception, and other aspects of human sexual behavior" (Klein, pp. 9, 1992). Although people all around the world accept the importance of sexual health, very few actually agree to the idea of education system to promote it. Main arguments regarding sex education programs involve role of government in family life; limitations to parent’s role in defining a sexual pattern for their children, subjectivity of values associated to sex for instance, gender and po wer etc and above all how does one define a mature sexual behavior for adolescent (Bruess & Greenberg, 2008). In addition, there are also questions as to how can one effectively communicate these ideas to adolescents, the content of such courses and mainly who is better suited to provide this guidance. Sex education has never been this critical an issue. Researches (Reintsma, 2007) reveal that there are 850,000 pregnancies and 9.1 million STIs (sexually transmitted infections) (Moore & Rosenthal, 2006). In addition, 70% females and 62% males have already experienced vaginal sex by the age of 18 in US. It has been a grave problem with little attention given. Moreover, as per U.S Department of Justice, every 2 minutes, a woman is raped. Only in the year 1995, 354,670 females encountered rape or

Capital investment appraisal within an organisation looks at the Essay

Capital investment appraisal within an organisation looks at the acquisition of fixed assets so as to generate wealth for the organisation - Essay Example Capital investment appraisal, which is also called capital budgeting, is the process to use funds to acquire operational assets (Khamees et al. 2010). These investment decisions obtain their guidance and source from the outcomes or results, which are provided by the source of capital investment appraisal. If the outcomes of capital investment appraisal are positive and encouraging, and these outcomes show that a particular investment, if taken, would bring wealth and additional inflows to the organisation, then investment or fund managers do not delay or waste a single minute to give a green signal for the investment project. Additionally, that investment project must ensure that after a certain number of years, the investment project would bring some additional inflows which would be more than the initial cost invested into that investment project. Four investment techniques are the different methods: Payback period, discounted payback period, net present value (NPV) and internal ra te of return (IRR). These four investment techniques are the basic tools used by the investment managers to carry out the process of investment appraisal. Each investment technique is different and is used differently by the fund or investment managers. Payback period is simply takes into account the number of years. Payback period informs that how many years a particular investment project would take to recover the initial cost of investment. The discounted payback period is a bit different to payback period. The discounted payback period uses a firm’s cost of capital for the purpose of evaluating the expected future cash flows from an investment project.... The discounted payback period uses a firm’s cost of capital for the purpose of evaluating the expected future cash flows from an investment project. In the discounted payback period, without using the cost of capital, the application of discounted payback period would not be possible and applicable for the purpose of conducting an investment appraisal. Net present value (NPV) is considered to be a more effective and reliable investment appraisal tool in comparison with other tools of investment appraisal. The main reason for its more recognition and more application among the different fund and investment managers is that net present value heavily relies on the technique of time-value of money concepts. The internal rate of return (IRR) is a discount rate. This discount rate is used by many fund and investment managers for the purpose of evaluating the future cash inflows. The only and most important function of the internal rate of return is to give a figure of cost of capita l; and this figure is used and applied on the different available cash flows to determine their present value. Capital Investment Appraisal For the financial and investment managers, the activity of capital investment appraisal brings a huge amount of responsibility for them. The capital investment appraisal requires purchasing a long term asset with a life of many years. This means, in case that fixed asset is purchased, the company becomes locked in for the duration of the asset’s life. Also, since the purchase of a fixed asset would directly increase the current level of business operations, and the contribution of the fixed asset would also increase in the activities of sales, costs and so on, it becomes necessary for the investment and fund

Varieties of Materialism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Varieties of Materialism - Essay Example Materialism of the mind holds that in cases where the mental type does not match the physical type, then it is most likely that two people may possess similar type mental event unless there occurs a difference in the type of their physical events. Graham views behaviourism theory as a philosophical concept, which largely depends on the behavioural evidence to make viable conclusions about psychological situation of a person. Behavioural theory does not rely or attempt to investigate the state of mind to draw conclusive view of individual’s psychology. Proponents of behaviourism theory demand behavioural change with reference to different situations to compile clear understanding of a person’s psychology. Behaviourism differs from the theory of functionalism since the latter relies on the mind and argues that mental states like beliefs, desires, aspirations and pains are caused by the specific functional cognitive roles that they play in regions of their occurrence. Func tionalists hold that pains are caused by bodily injuries to create a belief discomfort in the mind and seek possible ways of fleeing the situation. This result to anxiety and weakness accompanied by conflicting desires and failure to resolve the impasse which results to moaning and depression. For example, Tye demonstrates that an individual will be terrified upon realizing the presence of a dangerous animal like shark in the surrounding (5). Tye exemplifies that the particular individual will be disturbed by simple perception of the mind concerning the dangers attributed to sharks thus inducing the urge to flee (5). Brain theory states that the brain operates due to interaction and network of neurones and cells, which enable it to solve certain problems based on the connections between its basic components and networks (Zyga). Under Brain Theory, there are no special controlling components for certain functions of the brain instead all controls are localized and distributed equally to all parts of the brain system. Brain theorists believe that the brain in exists in a hierarchal state as there are certain parts that control other parts. Various parts of the brain learn rules of the operation in various detailed levels from the top most to the bottom. Proponents of brain theory argue that the concepts regarding functionality of the brain can be applied and related to the computer system, which synthesizes information and delivers appropriate output. The same way brain works in procedural steps so do the brain theorists believe to be the case with the physical computers. Behaviourism and brain theories tend to differ in that the behaviourists rely on the physical outcome of the internal structure to device a conclusion over the conducts of an individual while the brain theorists rely on the progression of events from top to bottom to reach to viable conclusion about a person’s conduct and expression. While the functionalists depend on the final reaction of individuals with reference to the action and interpretation of the mind, brain theorists learn the processes and steps that led to the final and observable expression of an individual. One of the problems attributed to behaviourism is that most behaviourists tend to believe that individuals have better access and interpretation of mental states of others than they do to themselves (Jackson 33).

The Frst Genuine System of Federal Government Essay

The Frst Genuine System of Federal Government - Essay Example From this discussion it is clear that  grandfather Franklin was more reserved, though with prodding he too became excited and animated.   Grandfather Jefferson would call him a Deist, a man of science, and argue that he favored an elimination of religious faith from American governance rather than a mere separation of church and state.   This always served to start Grandfather Franklin talking.   He told us that religious faith was an essential part of our philosophical heritage, that while it led to oppression when abused, it also functioned as an integral aspect of our culture.   He told us that he favored religion, so long as it was adequately shielded from politics and from state affairs.This paper highlights that  the reporter's grandfathers adhered to the same basic story of the Founding Fathers, and they themselves admired the founding philosophies.   They agreed that America was correct to decide that natural laws ought to govern our roles as individual citizens and that government ought to be designed to respect the individual.   They agreed that powerful governments were dangerous, a threat to these natural laws, and that is was necessary to implement a series of checks and balances in order for these ideals to persist.   They both agreed on the separation of church and state, and they both agreed that religious values nevertheless remained valuable.   They both sought to separate the government into separate branches.

M4 Differentiated, Learner-Centered Professional Development Essay

M4 Differentiated, Learner-Centered Professional Development - Essay Example There will be a survey that will be carried out at the end of the workshop to evaluate the workshop and to give suggestions for future workshops. There will also be an opportunity within the survey questionnaire for grading certain aspects of the institution in terms of teaching using the Leaning Forward and the Morzanos’ Nine steps. Participants are encouraged to be as honest as possible in their feedback to allow for accurate analysis and note that all the questionnaires shall remain anonymous for the sake of confidentiality. The professional development session will deal with both teachers and students. School administrators by the very nature of their work will also have to collaborate with the teachers and the students in terms of facilitating the means by which feedback is received and analyzed. This is the best practice for making changes and it is the best guide to decision making at all levels whether it is in the classroom or in the boardroom. Data based needs of new teachers can be slightly different from those who have been in the profession in the past because change is dynamic in all fields with the ever-changing work environment, which is influenced by change and technological advances. This has brought differentiation. It is pertinent to note that the teaching profession has many stakeholders with the major two stakeholders being the teacher and the student. The session will be borrowing heavily form Professional developments for professional learning, which is a leader in the area of individual teacher effectiveness. This is an effective and great approach to professional learning, which will translate to better student learning, as it seeks to improve the individual performance of teachers. The entire concept is core to the majority of national edu ­cation systems and their effectiveness, as this type of strategic approach puts singular emphasis on aligning professional development with teacher

Eye Contact with Japanese Businessmen Essay Example for Free

Eye Contact with Japanese Businessmen Essay In Japan, the businessmen avoid eye contact. The businessmen would rather not waste their time and distract other men, especially their senior officers. Distractions may be embarrassing, especially when one should be focusing on the task at hand. In this research paper, comparisons among America and its culture will be displayed to accumulate ideas on why the Japanese avoid eye contact. There is more than one factor playing in Japanese customs on avoiding eye contact. This paper generates ideas from animalistic behavior, to parental control, to busy cities, to friends, to professional NBA players, and to a religion that began in the United States. Not only is eye contact distracting, but also unnecessary while the notion of withdrawing oneself can be seen as helpful to cope with certain conditions in the environment. As we study cultures we can determine the differences between countless etiquettes and mannerisms across the world. Looking at two separate countries, we can compare what is considered acceptable and unacceptable. Because we live in the Unites States, it is easy to know what we, as Americans, should do and not do in a business meeting. If American businessmen, especially ones who are uninformed, meet with Japanese businessmen, the possibility of embarrassing or offending the Japanese culture is likely when conducting business at an absolute or selfish angle. The Japanese culture maintains a business that is great on group effort and loyalty. With these certain characteristics, the Japanese take on many roles to support their ways of humility. This is why we can see the Japanese businessmen intentionally avoiding eye-contact with other businessmen during a meeting to preserve modesty. Business is a consolidation within man to form an agreement at peace. We learn from studies of history and animals that staring is a sign of aggression. When eye contact is made, a mutual reflection of a challenge (or fight) occurs. Both parties may not want to partake or antagonize a fight, but when the eyes of humans and animals alike connect, the brain will induce a chemical reaction that triggers responses in the body to take action in order to defend itself. Now in a business setting, the Japanese arent ones to create a fight when a disagreement occurs. This is a way to respect senior decisions to avoid acting naive. If we take a look at the American culture, we can see how American parents confront their children when the children are misbehaving. Young children will naturally want to stop all eye-contact and maybe even run away. To correct this behavior, parents are told to maintain eye contact while communicating with their child. This is a way to build trust in a healthy rel ationship. When we think of the word business, its easy for Americans to think of New York City, a place of a heavily, dense population of business trafficking. The place can be described as busy because everyone is running around while trying to get to their next business meeting. It wouldnt be considered rude if someone bumped into you by accident if they were rushing into a taxi cab. A newcomer to the city might, at first, be outraged, but in time city dwellers are accustomed to it. In Japan, perhaps eye-contact avoidance is another practice due to high population. The Japanese is one culture to like their privacy. A great way to ruin ones privacy is to intentionally engage in eye-contact, especially with a prolonged engagement. Imagine coming home from work everyday in public transportation and running into an unknown interval. One thing a person might do is make eye-contact with a stranger to see if the stranger is aware of this interval. Now imagine you are conducting a meeting and you come across some interval in your way. An instinctive reaction is to seek help. However, in an important business meeting, this is a devastating episode in which you may bring down a friend if he is unaware of this interval as well. The best thing to do, in Japanese customs, is to own up and not throw your best friend under the bus with you. How should you do it? Perhaps avoid eye contact and stay calm with your best manners at hand. The Japanese are known to close their eyes when they are listening intently. This is a reaction to block out from sensing other things that are going on in the room. In America, we can find many distracting things that are meant to distract you. If you go to an NBA playoff game and watch a professional basketball player attempt a free-throw at an away game, you will see almost everyone in the audience do their best to distract the player, in order for him to miss the free-throw. You will hear loud noises, see shirts waving, and even see fan memorabilia made, bought, and obtained for that sole purpose during a free-throw shooting. One American religion, called the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints shows reverence similar to the Japanese eye contact phenomenon. During a sacrament meeting at the LDS church, many people will give talks or performances such as singing or violin playing. In one, hour long meeting, there may be up to 5 or more people conducting a session. After each person concludes their talk or performance, it is in the Mormon practice to show gratitude with reverence. The LDS members will keep quiet during the session without gossip or clapping to maintain the spirit. Comparing the Japanese to an LDS sacrament session, closing the eyes and being reverent is a way to block out an unnecessary force. As we can determine in an NBA playoff game, there is no room for respect. Players will have to play hard and with whatever comes in their way. Eye contact is a method to show people I am here. People have an ambition, or sometimes a reaction, to make ones presence known. We do it for attention, for work, or to make new friends. However, the Japanese have grown accustomed in a practice of avoiding eye-contact when things are busy and sometimes serious. In the business place, respecting senior officers is important to maintain ones own status while progressing in rank. It is important for the Japanese not to discourage other businessmen or to bother them during a stressful time. How else can one show respect than to maintain a personal boundary?

Schindlers List vs Book Thief Essay Example for Free

Schindlers List vs Book Thief Essay The character Death, in Zusack’s The Book Thief says: â€Å"That’s the sort of thing I’ll never know- what humans are capable of. † Discuss the way this statement reflects one or more texts you have seen or read this year. Adaptation is the ability to adjust for existence under environmental conditions. Like how animals adapt in the wild, humans are also capable to be tolerant in difficult situations. We do not know our limit of cruelty or kindness. Although most people choose to be kind and sympathetic to others, there are also people who are cruel and cold-hearted. Mark Zusack states this idea in his book, The Book Thief from death’s point of view, â€Å"That’s the sort of thing I’ll never know, or comprehend- what humans are capable of. † Amon Goth’s cruelty to Jews in the movie, Schindler’s List is an example of human’s undeterminable mind. The morning when groups of Jews arrive to his work camp, Goth randomly starts shooting the Jews from his veranda. At first, the Jews thought they are now safe since they have survived the chaos in the city. Therefore, Goth shoots them to rise up the tension of the scene. His shots cause chaos at the camp and the view of the chaos from his veranda makes the Jews look more animal like and vulnerable. Later in the film, the Jews’ wedding scene, Schindler’s social party scene and Goth torturing Helen scene are shown by juxtaposition. This juxtaposition shows those three different scenes that create different moods in a short amount of time. This also shows Goth’s insanity. He asks questions to Helen however, he answers those questions by himself pretending Helen is the one who’s answering them. His sudden mood swings also hints about his odd mental condition. In the film Schindler’s List, the audiences are mesmerized by the protagonist, Oskar Schindler’s generosity. It uses juxtaposition between Schindler and Itzhak Stern’s thorough search of all the names to add to the list to save the Jews from the work camp and the images of those people to show the critical subclimax of the movie. Schindler’s break down at the end of the movie touches the audiences’ hearts. He keeps murmuring to Itzhak about his regrets. He thinks that if he knew that the war was about to end, e would have spent everything he has to save more Jews. He was touched when the Jews have him a gold ring as a gift for his devotions. When the Jews hand him the ring his hands were shaking and he was shocked. Most people would not risk their lives to safe others. However, Schindler’s selflessness is magnificent which has save thousands of Jews’ lives. Another example from this film is at the beginning when Narzi soldiers evacuate and execute the Jews in the city. These soldiers barge into the apartments destroy all the belonging in their paths. When they cannot control the situation, they start random shootings which killed hundreds of thousands of people. Not one of the soldiers hesitates before they put a bullet in the Jews’ heads. Although there were bloodsheds, we could not see the colour since almost the entire movie is shown in black and white. Otherwise, these bloodshed scenes would be even more horrible. The Nazi’s discrimination towards the Jews is also a very cruel act that most people are not capable of understanding the reason why they did it. The signs of discrimination are shown in the film. The Nazis let them run around naked during the medical checks. Although the doctors can easily determine the difference between the sick and the healthy Jews, they forced them to be examined naked in the camp. This is shown to portray how powerless and embarrassed the Jews would have felt at that time. The director shows this scene from many different angles to capture all the actions happening in the area. The tombstones of the Jews are used to build up roads which is also another way of dehumanizing the Jews. These tombstones are important for their family members but they have used it as a resource to walk on it which shows disrespect. It is also to make to look like the Jews are powerless and vulnerable. Another surprising thing that overwhelms people is the Jews’ capability to harsh violence by the Nazis. At the beginning of the movie, the Jews are sent off to the work camp by travelling in squashing trains and trucks. They had to work hard labour although this kind of work used to be unfamiliar for most people; some still manage to survive this hardship. Although they have to do harsh labours, the execution, and concentration camps they still do not lose hope. The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank wrote that, â€Å"Someday I will be able to taste freedom and some day we will all be free. † No matter how bad the situation is humans also hope for the best. I believe that this is something that only humans are most capable of. It is hope that let so many people conquer hardships and difficulties.

Collaborative Working Reflective Essay

Collaborative Working Reflective Essay Throughout this whole assignment I am going to critically appraise others and my own practice as a collaborative worker via personal reflections and experiences of collaborative working, through experience in professional practice. I aim to link service user improvement and collaboration defining the importance of them both. Furthermore, explaining the various leadership models clarifying why they are important and needed throughout a health care team. I will plan to explain and critically evaluate an experience with the intention to promote positive outcomes for the service environment. Additionally then identifying a service improvement plan, in this case designing a 15minute time management nutritional chart for patients with dementia. Service improvement The BW Quality Safety (2007) defines service improvement, stating it is a combined and constant effort from everyone, including healthcare professionals, patients and their families, researchers, payers, etc. The changes need to lead to better patient outcomes, better quality care and better professional development (see appendix 2). The aim of all health care systems strive to provide safe and good quality health care, improve patient experiences, tackle effectiveness and update practice in the light of evidence from research (RCN 2015). Critical analysis of own performance from the Interprofessional capability framework (2009) section OC3/L2, I identified myself as level 2 (see appendix 1). During my district nursing placement, collaborative working is a key when being a nurse in the community. During my placement I interacted with various health professionals across various organisations. I ensured I was knowledgeable about the information I was passing over and I always opted in to interacting with the other professionals to build my confidence. Collaborative working The King Fund (2014) recently released a new policy document about time for change bringing ideas together from all sectors to help change the health care and improve collaborative working. The Royal College of Nursing (2004) states collaboration is diverse, ranging from intra-disciplinary teams on an individual setting to multi-agency working practices. Collaboration covers the process of researching, assessing, planning, implementing and evaluation (Thomas 2014). Critical analysis of my own performance from the Interprofessional Capability Framework (2009) section R2/L2, I identified myself as level 2 (see appendix 1). In multi-disciplinary meetings (MDT), I was co-operative, keen and knowledgeable about the patients. I was eager and asked questions throughout the MDT. I asked question when not understanding and I felt as though the health care professionals valued me as a student because I showed an interested instead of doubting my own knowledge. Weaknesses showed as I felt more nervous to question a doctor if I didnt feel the statement was correct. Nevertheless, opportunities to share and discuss actions with area for improvements are valued within the health care system (RCN 1995). Additionally, critically analysing another Interprofessional Capability (2009) section CAEP1/L2. I identified myself as level 2 (see appendix 1). Through collaborative working I was able to achieve this capability by engaging myself in discussions about cultura l beliefs and awareness, during MDT meetings and general discussion between different sectors, therefore enabling to gain knowledge about the issues within communities of practice. Service user and collaboration The Journal of Nursing Management (2010) cited by Francis (2010, p400) dedication, compassion and effective teamwork contribute to the welfare of patients and should be valued. Both nursing and medical staff are entitled to effective collaboration, one of the core values of Interprofessional working should be about respecting the individuals within the team (Barnes 2012). Collaborative practice between disciplines, patients and family result in the highest quality of care and strengthens health care systems, proposing that Interprofessional education is the way forward to producing a collaborative-practice ready workforce (Goodman 2010). Reflecting on my first placement, collaborative practice was shown poorly within the team and there was little discussion made throughout the team. This made it difficult for crucial information to be passed on effectively. Critically analysing my own performance from the Interprofessional Capability Framework (2009) section CW/L2, I identified myself as level 2 (see appendix 1). Effective communication is one of the primary barriers when working to ensure safe, consistent and excellent patient care (Baird 2012). An area of weakness when I communicate with patients is posture, from self-analysis I have noticed that on some occasions I become awkward and am unsure where to stand or how to sit in front of a patient. Hopefully, through self-realisation I will be able to improve in this area on my future placement. Leadership The NHS health care system is subject to a pressure of change, throughout these changes the health care industrial requires nursing leaders with special attributes, therefore identifying leaders who are able to guide the profession into a positive future (Sofarelli 1998). The frameworks that will be critically analysed are The NHS Leadership framework (2011) and NHS Change Model (2013). The NHS Leadership framework (2011) to bring together leadership principles and best practice guidance. The framework delivers a reliable approach to leadership development for staff in health and care throughout the NHS. The NHS Leadership framework is made up of nine leadership styles (see appendix 3). The leadership behaviours are shown on a four-part scale which range from essential† through proficient and strong to exemplary. The NHS Change Model (2013) has a similar aspect about leadership with slight differences as it has been released more recently (see appendix 4). The leadership framework also encourages staff members at all levels across the NHS to become a leader and the main aim for this framework is to encourage everyone working in the NHS to become a leader of change, pushing for everyone’s opinions to gather a general scope of the main issues in the healthcare. So how do leaders inspire staff to participate? Staff members need to be able to be independent, ensuring they can widen their choice of skills (West Dawson 2012). This will allow greater job satisfaction. Leadership is important when influencing a group of individuals to achieve a specific and obtainable goal. The style of the leader is essential when influencing change and aiming to achieve a high quality of care. Within leadership there are various types of leadership styles which, depending on your personality, determine which style you will obtain. Collective leadership is known as the most popular leadership style used within NHS healthcare. This style is based upon building relationships with the other health service users, the individual is strong and has passion to support and grow the team (Jackson 2007). This type of style influences and motivates other members, facilitating the development of robust, vibrant and reproductive research cultures (Russell Stone 2004).The decisions are made within the whole team based on the organisations values and ideals. Additionally, authoritarian leadership is where all the decisions are made without consenting any of the other staff membe rs, negative reinforcement and punishment is often used to enforce rules. This type of style is used when the individual feels power and generally withdraws from the team. The positive aspect about this style is that in an emergency situation little discussion is made and this then enables tasks to be completed promptly. I felt that during first placement authoritarian leadership style was used mainly. This was due to a lack of staff and high demand from the patients. This style seers to be the best for this kind of situation but it also entails negative points. Critically analysing my own performance throughout placement, I personally feel that I am heading towards becoming a transformational leader, which is very similar to the collective leader. During my first third year placement, I had the chance to lead a small group of team members that were caring for the patients I was in charge of. I needed to make sure I had charisma and confidence, ensuring I motivated the other staff members and allowing me to build relationships with the team. At first I felt embarrassed and unconfident because of my experience compared to others, although after getting to know the team and showing commitment and knowledge, it allowed taking charge easier because I had more respect from the team. SECOND SECTION During placement periods as student nurses, we all experience different experiences and various routines dependant on the ward allocated to us. Throughout this section of the assignment, I am going to discuss a placement ward in which I felt there should be an area of change. The reflective model I have chosen to use is Bortons model (Barton 1970). Bortons model simply puts three simple questions to be asked of the experience to be reflected on; What?, So what?, Now what? The model will be incorporated into the reflection to facilitate critical thoughts, relating theory to practice. In my first year of becoming a nursing student, I was placed on a care of the elderly ward for dementia specialising in Parkinsons, with around roughly 26 medical beds. This ward was very fast paced and constantly hectic. Throughout the placement, I noticed the patients suffering from severe dementia had various nutritional needs. Weight loss is common in individuals suffering from dementia, caused by poor appetite. This could be due to a variety of problems including communication, depression and pain (Alzheimers society, 2013). I noticed that occasionally some patients would not have eaten throughout the whole day or even barely drank fluids due to refusing at meal times; this therefore becomes the patient’s routine because food isnt incorporated into their daily activity. The main issue with this ward was time management due to the high demand of patients and care needed. This sometimes showed to have a damaging effect on various patients that needed more care and time. PDS A cycle plan is to design a time chart which specifies that a minimum of 15 minutes one-to-one time, needs to be spent with a particular patient. This will then hopefully enable the patient to become familiar with you as the care giver during their meal time. It occurred to me when on a dementia ward that the patients often go by familiarity despite their memory. For example, some patients would only consume diet and fluids when their relative was around despite not knowing who they are. Therefore, hopefully with my change of plan being put in place, if a member of staff is allocated specific patients for the day and every meal time the care-giver spends 15 minutes with the patient during the period, the likelihood of the patient consuming even a small amount of food is higher than when the patient was not receiving enough quality time. Additionally to help implement the service improvement, structures known as process mapping and the PDSA cycle (plan, so, study, act) are used. Process mapping enables health professionals to capture the certainty of the patient experiences, following their whole journey to help identify the main problem areas for change. An example of a process map performed is shown in (appendix 5), designing a process map helps to identify the specific problem, which provides clear evidence that a service improvement plan is needed. In this case, a process map was not needed for this service improvement plan. On the other hand the PDSA cycle is used to provisionally trail a change in practice, allowing the team members and patients to assess the impact of the change before implementing it into practice. Plan To firstly initiate my plan of change I introduced it into the multi-disciplinary team meeting. This allowed me to help steer and co-ordinate the intervention as well as review my process with the team. Therefore bringing all of the health care professionals together can then be given a stake in the outcome and we can all work to achieve the goal. Clarke (2008) believes that teams without nurses are guaranteed to fail. Additionally tears led by nurses and therapists, however successful, often lack control; therefore doctors must also be a part of the team. This change of plan has been designed purely through observation during my first year placement. Speaking to various service users and family members I gathered together a concern for the patients nutritional needs. As well as noticing a strain on the staff I thought assembling a change of plan will relieve the team and prevent stress, hopefully bringing collaborative practice together. Additionally when implementing a plan of change there will be controversy. Lewin (1951) designed a force field analysis, a strategic tool used to understand what is needed for change in both corporate and personal environments. For example Kurt Lewin (1951) states directly An issue is health in balance by the interaction of two opposing sets of forces those seeking to promote change, known as the driving forces and those attempting to maintain the status quo (restraining forces). Throughout change there will always be individuals willing to contribute to make a change happen, nevertheless there will be restraining forces that resist. To help with the leadership section for my plan of change, the approach I will use is the transformational style. This will allow me to bring everyone together creating a discussion on everyone’s thoughts and feelings about the plan. It is crucial that the idea set out is agreed by the majority of the individuals, because the plan of change will cost a small amount from the NHS budget, therefore the change needs to be beneficial to the NHS. The Institute for Innovation and Improvement (2013) states currently in the NHS we are facing an unpredictable challenge to improve quality and reduce the cost. Collecting the correct data both quantitative and qualitative at frequent intervals over extended periods allows the health professionals to make an uniformed decision about whether the change is moving the NHS in the correct direction. To enable my plan of change to happen/work I am going to need to ensure I have the involvement of various team members. Therefore allowing the patie nts to get the specified 15minutes one-to-one time, obviously nurses and health care assistants are going to be my main priority. Do To test whether this change of plan is a good idea I am going to perform a pilot study. A pilot study is a methodological introduction, the aim is to develop, adapt and check the possibility of the methods functioning for my service improvement plan (Foster 2013). To test this idea firstly, I discussed the service improvement with members of staff from other wards and family members to gain a general scope of ideas about plan. I performed this because the ward used for my service improvement plan, staff did not work collaboratively therefore I didnt feel as though I would gain a positive outcome. Nevertheless I decided to use questionnaires with the whole team on the ward. This allowed me to collect the positives and negatives together and analyse whether I have achieved the service improvement. Additionally collecting the information will allow me to predict how long the process will take due to the amount of staff members that are for my service improvement. Main source of data has come from surveys and questionnaires using a qualitative research approach. Qualitative research is performed in a realistic setting, generally used from research that is collected through interviews and observation (Cleary 2014). Reflecting on this I am able to look back at the data collected and weigh out the pros and cons of my service improvement. I gained feedback from the patients family members as well as staff on the ward and on other wards. I feel that I have used a variety of sources to gain an accurate and reliable result. Study Merging all of my information/evidence together my main priority was to achieve a summary of the results. I used a matrix framework to bring themes together from the data I collected. This way I could set out the data in various categories to make the research basic. Furthermore with the information, I shared this verbally during multi-disciplinary meetings to put the service improvement plan across a variety of health professionals, gaining a professional feedback. Also discussing the service improvement with family relatives, gaining more of an outside view from individuals that don’t work in the health care. This type of study allowed me to gain precision and feedback from different sectors. Act Unfortunately as I am unable to actually perform this service improvement, therefore I need to look at this service improvement plan hypothetically. Reviewing changes of my service improvement plan I am fully aware that this service improvement plan will only work if the ward works collaboratively. Consequently the ward chosen for this, need to aim to improve their leadership skills and their collaboration between the other sectors. To help implement this plan effectively I am going to firstly introduce this plan into breakfast meal times, allowing me to improve small areas more effectively and then eventually open this plan out to all meals. Overall I believe that allowing 15 minutes one-to-one time, whether that is during all meal times or just breakfast will improve patients nutritional needs, especially for dementia patients it allows time for familiarity for the patients. Conclusion Concluding the whole assignment together prioritising the main issues in this assignment, I feel collaborative practice needs to be used as daily activities within the health care system. It has been clearly shown how essential it is to collaborate in a team and ensure leadership is prioritised. Designing a service improvement plan was a great experience and I now feel confident critiquing services and planning a change, it has helped me realise how much you actually notice during practice placement and the improvements that I, as an individual, can actually make. Overall, l I now hold a greater knowledge about team dynamics, areas of good and bad practice and service user involvement.

The Dangers and Safety Precautions Related to the Olfactory Dysfunction Anosmia :: Medicine Medicinal Medical Essays

The Dangers and Safety Precautions Related to the Olfactory Dysfunction Anosmia Imagine the smell of some freshly baked cookies hot out of the oven, or the clean smell of a brand new car's interior. Have you ever thought what it might be like to never smell these scents again? What if you could not smell your dinner burning on the stove or the fact that the baby needs a diaper change? The National Institutes of Health in 1979 found that around 200,000 people consult their doctors every year for the decreased or total loss of smell (Crawford and Sounder, 95). The disorder is anosmia, the loss of the sense of smell, usually from a sinus infection or a nasal obstruction, which lasts only temporarily. Anosmia is also known as a permanent condition commonly resulting from a head injury or disease, such as airopic rhinitis or chronic rhititus associated with granulomatous disease, which destroys either the olfactory nerve. This smell disorder can also be caused by psychological factors, such as a specific fear of a particular smell (Mosby, 94). Of then five senses, smell seems to be the least appreciated (Gillyatt, 97). Society always gives attention to the senses that appear most necessary: sight and hearing. Touch and taste appear more important because it is obvious that without them life becomes more challenging (Gillyatt, 97). Humans are microsmatic, which means that the sense of smell is not necessary for survival like with animals (Goldstein, 99). The sense of smell can protect people and therefore is important. Smell also makes things enjoyable (Gillyatt, 97). For instance, when eating a favorite food the taste is much more flavorful when feeling healthy opposed to being congested. Humans can recognize as many as 10,000 different scents, compared to the sense of taste , which is limited to four basic categories: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter (Gillyatt, 97). The sense of smell is very important, but taken for granted. Everyone should be aware of anosmia because as people age the disorder becomes more and more common . Approximately fifty percent of people over 65 years of age have experienced a decrease in smell (Schiffman, 94). It is apparent that the weakening of the sense of smell is age related (Cain and Stevens, 86). Anosmia is a disorder that needs to be taken seriously. The permanent loss of smell can be hazardous to ones health if not dealt with properly.

Sarcasm and Irony in Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal :: A Modest Proposal Jonathan Swift

Sarcasm and Irony in Swift's A Modest Proposal In his lengthy literary career, Jonathan Swift wrote many stories that used a broad range of voices that were used to make some compelling personal statements. For example, Swifts, A Modest Proposal, is often heralded as his best use of both sarcasm and irony. Yet taking into account the persona of Swift, as well as the period in which it was written, one can prove that through that same use of sarcasm and irony, this proposal is actually written to entertain the upper-class. Therefore the true irony in this story lies not in the analyzation of minute details in the story, but rather in the context of the story as it is written. One of the voices that is present throughout the story is that of irony. The story itself is ironic since no one can take Swifts proposal seriously. This irony is clearly demonstrated at the end of the story; Swift makes it clear that this proposal would not affect him since his children were grown and his wife unable to have any more children. It would be rather absurd to think that a rational man would want to both propose this and partake in the eating of another human being. Therefore, before an analyzation can continue, one has to make the assumption that this is strictly a fictional work and Swift had no intention of pursuing his proposal any further. One of the other voices that is present throughout the entire story is that of sarcasm. In order to understand this further, a reader has to comprehend that Swift, becoming infamous after Gullivers Travels, was a member of the upper-class. Right from the first paragraph Swift attempts to fool his readers by the sarcasm of the dreary scene that Swift presents. For example, he mentions that it is a melancholy sight to see beggars and their children on the street. The sarcastic paradox in this statement is whether it is a melancholy object for him, having to see homeless people every day, or for the beggars lifestyle? Upon first reading this one may be led to believe that Swift is a compassionate writer attempting to feel the pain of the beggars. But as the story continues, a reader can look back and note that he is using a sarcastic tone and the only sad sight that he sees is the fact that people of his status have to deal with commoners.

Analysis Network

CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND PACKET SWITCHING 1) INTRODUCTION Telecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are geographically for apart. The communication switching system enables universal connectivity. Switches can be valuable asset to networking[1]. Overall, they can increase the capacity and speed of our network. Every time in computer network we access the internet or another   computer network outside our immediate location, our messages are sent through a maze of transmission media and connection devices.The mechanism for moving information between different computer network and network segment is called switching in computer network[2]. Figure 1: Switched network Long distance transmission is typically done over a network of switched nodes. Nodes not concerned with content of data. A collection of nodes and connections is a communications network. Data routed by being switched from node to node. Nodes may connect to other nodes only, or to stations an d other nodes. Node to node links usually multiplexed. However, switching should not be seen as a cure-all for network issues.There are two different switching technologies which are: 1) Circuit switching and 2) Packet switching. 1. Circuit Switching Circuit switching was the first switching technique have been used in communication network. This is due to easy to carry analog signals. Circuit switching  network establishes a fixed bandwidth channel between nodes before the users may communicate, as if the nodes were physically connected with an electrical circuit. The bit delay is constant during the connection, as opposed to packet switching, where packet queues may cause varying delay.In circuit switching, the transmission medium is typically divided into channels using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), or Code Division Multiplexing (CDM). A circuit is a string of concatenated channels from the source to the destination that carries an inf ormation flow. To establish the circuits, a signaling mechanism is used. This signaling only carriers control information, and it is considered an overhead. Since all decisions are taken by the signaling process, the signaling mechanism is the most complex part in circuit switching.Each circuit cannot be used by other callers until the circuit is released and a new connection is set up. Even if no communication is taking place in a dedicated circuit then, that channel still remains unavailable to other users. Channels that are available for new calls to be set up are said to be idle. Telephone network is example of circuit switching system. Virtual circuit switching is a packet switching technology that may emulate circuit switching, in the sense that the connection is established before any packets are transferred, and that packets are delivered in order.Unlike with packet switched networks, we cannot just send a ‘packet’ to the destination. We need to establish and la ter terminate the connection. We need to have some way of transmitting control information, we can either do this in band that the same channel we use for data or out of band which is on a seperate dedicated channel. Phone networks used in band signaling a while ago we could control switching and other functionality by playing tones into the telephone. Today in band signaling is considered unsecure and is not used except for compability with old systems[3]. 2. Packet SwitchingPacket switching  is a communications paradigm in which packets are routed between nodes over data links shared with other traffic. In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets. These packets are sent out from the computer and they travel around the network seeking out the most efficient route to travel as circuit become available. This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest route. Each packet may go different route from the others. Each packet contains a  "header† with information necessary for routing the packet from source to destination.The header address also describes the sequences for reassembly at the destination computer so that the packets are put back into the correct order. Each packet in a data stream is independent. To be able to understand packet-switching, we need to know what a  packet  is. The  Internet Protocol (IP), just like many other  protocols, breaks data into chunks and wraps the chunks into structures called packets. Each packet contains, along with the data load, information about the IP address of the source and the destination nodes, sequence numbers and some other control information.A packet can also be called a segment or datagram. Once they reach their destination, the packets are reassembled to make up the original data again. It is therefore obvious that, to transmit data in packets, it has to be digital data. The packet switching can broadly be divided into two main categories, first is the virtual circuit approach and other is the datagram approach. In the virtual circuit approach to packet switching, the relationship between all packets belonging to the message or a session is preserved. A single route is chosen between the sender and the receiver at beginning of the session.When the data are sent, all packets of transmission travel one after another along that route. The wide area networks use the virtual circuit approach to the packet switching. The virtual circuit approach needs a call setup for establishing a virtual circuit between the source and destination. A call teardown deletes virtual circuit. After the setup, routing takes place based on the identifier known as the virtual circuit identifier. This approach can be used in the WANs, frame relay and an ATM. In the other approach of packet switching that is the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently of all others.Even if one packet is just a piece of a multi-packet transmission, the ne twork treats it as though it is existed alone. Packets in this approach are known as the datagram. The internet has chosen datagram approach to switching in the network layer. It uses the universal addresses defined in network layer to route packets from the source to destination. In  packet-switching, the packets are sent towards the destination irrespective of each other. Each packet has to find its own route to the destination. There is no predetermined path; the decision as to which node to hop to in the next step is taken only when a node is reached.Each packet finds its way using the information it carries, such as the source and destination IP addresses[4]. 2) HISTORY OF CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND PACKET SWITCHING * Evolution of Circuit Switching Switches are used to build transmission path between telephone set on a flexible basis. Without switches, each telephone set would require a direct, dedicated circuit to every other telephone set in order to be able to communicate. This is a full-mesh physical topology network. Such a full mesh network clearly is resource-intensive, impractical and even impossible, as early experience proved.Circuit Switching were developed for voice communications. Contemporary circuit switches provide continuous access to logical channels over high-capacity physical circuits for the duration of the conversation. In January 1878, the first telephone switch went into operation in New Haven Connecticut. Switching technology had advanced drastically over the intervening decades, yet the basic function had remained the same: interconnect users of telephones by creating circuits between them. Every telephone has a line, or circuit, that connects physically to a telephone switch.In the simple case of both the person making the call and the person being called are connected to the same switch, the caller dials the number of the desired person, the switch checks to see if the line is available, and if it is, the two lines are interconnec ted by the switch. The connection is maintained until one person hangs up his or her telephone, at which time the switch terminates the connection, freeing both lines for other calls. Three characteristics of this type of switching, called â€Å"circuit switching,† are important.First, before the two parties can talk the circuit between them has to be created, and it takes time for a switch to check if a connection can be made and then to make the connection. Second, when a connection has been made, it creates a dedicated connection. No other party can reach either party of a dedicated connection until that connection has ended. Three, since switches are very expensive one accounting policy telephone companies implemented to recover their investment was to institute a minimum charge for every telephone call, generally three minutes.For voice calls that lasted many minutes, a minimum charge did not represent a problem. But communications between computers often last less than seconds, much less minutes. It was difficult to image how circuit switching could work efficiently for computer communications when such a system took minutes to make a connection, created dedicated connections so only one person, or party, could be in connection with another party, and had a prohibitive cost structure. Although these issues were generally understood before the experiments of Roberts and Marill in 1965, they were once again strongly confirmed.The experiments also made it abundantly clear that the problems confronting computer communications were not only with the circuit-switching architecture of the telephone system. Host operating system software of the day assumed there was only one Host and all connecting devices were as if â€Å"slaves. † Hosts were not designed to recognize or interact with peer-level computers; the concept of peer-level computing did not yet exist. Thus, in interconnecting two computers, one had to be master and one slave. The problem only became worse if more than two computers wanted to interconnect and communicate.Nevertheless, the problem of Host software was considered to be solvable if a suitable communication system could be designed and made to work. Fortunately, an inquisitive innovative scientist, Paul Baran, had already explored the problems of circuit switching beginning in 1959. By 1962, he had made his concept of a message-based communication system publicly known. Independently, in 1965, an English scientist, Donald Davies reached the same conclusions as had Baran and would coin its name: packet switching. * Evolution of Packet Switching The concept of packet switching had two independent beginnings, with Paul Baran and Donald Davies.Leonard Kleinrock conducted early research and authored a book in 1961 in the related field of digital message switching without explicitly using the concept of packets and also later played a leading role in building and management of the world’s first packet s witched network, namely the ARPANET. Baran developed the concept of packet switching during his research for the US Air Force into survivable communications networks, first published in 1962, and then including and expanding somewhat within a series of eleven papers titled â€Å"On distributed communications† in 1964.Baran’s earlier paper described a general architecture for a large-scale, distributed survivable communication network. His paper focused on three key ideas: 1) the use of a decentralized network with multiple paths between any two points, 2) dividing complete user messages into what he called message blocks (packets), and 3) delivery of this message by store and forward switching. Baran’s study paved the way for Robert Taylor and J. C. R.Licklider, both wide-area network evangelists working at the Information Processing Technology Office, and it also helped influence Lawrence Roberts to adopt the technology when Taylor put him in charge of developm ent of the ARPANET. Baran’s packet switching work similar to the research performed independently by Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory, UK. In 1965, Davies developed the concept of packet switched networks and proposed development of a U. K. wide network. He gave a talk on the proposal in 1966, after which a person from Ministry of Defense told him about Baran’s work.At the 1967 ACM Symposium on operating system principles, Davies and Robert bringing the two groups together. Interestingly, Davies had be chosen some of the same parameters for his original network design as Baran, such as a packet size of 1024 bits. Roberts and the ARPANET team took the name â€Å"packet switching† itself from Davies work. In 1970, Davies helped build a packet switched network called Mark I to serve the NPL in the UK. It was replaced with the Mark II in 1973, and remained in operation until 1986, influencing other packet communications research in UK and Europe[5]. 3) COMPARISON BETWEEN CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHINGCircuit Switching: In circuit switching a message path or data communication path or channel or circuit is dedicated to an entire message block during the process of message transmission. The entire bandwidth is dedicated to the said message as it were, and before any data transmission can take place circuit initialisation and setup has to be done to enable or determine the avalaibility of the link as in trying to make a call using the telephon line for voice messaging or even dial-up procedure where you need to establsih that the line is free for use in the first place; and then have the line engaged all through your time of use.All the message travel through the same path and keep the link engaged all the while when the block of message is been relayed or transmitted. In circuit switching, whole of the data travels along a single dedicated path between the two terminals whereas in datagram switching data is divided into packets an d each of these packets are treated indepently and travel along different paths, source and destination being the same. Circuit switching concept is used in Telephony networks where a dedicated line is assigned to particular connection, the connection in this case is permanent during the connection.Considerable amount of bandwidth is wasted in this process and at a time only one way communication is possible. Circuit switching is done at physical layer whereas datagram switching is generally done at network layer. Circuit switching requires the resources to be reserved before the transmission of data but datagram switching doesn’t require such reservation of resources. Advantages: 1. Fixed delays, because of the dedicated circuit – no interference and no sharing. 2. Guaranteed continous service, also because of the dedicated circuit. . Guaranted the full bandwidth for the duration of the call. Disadvantages: 1. Takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit. 2. Dif ficult to support variable data rates and is not efficient for burst traffic. The equipment may be unused for a lot of call, if no data is being sent the dedicated line still remains open. 3. During crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable. 4. It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data traffic. Packet Switching:In packet switching the block of data is split into small units with each unit having a sequence number attached to it for orderly identification within a given message block and these different units are usaully sent across the available diffrent links or channels of data transmission from one end to the other end point where they arrvive at different times but have to be assembled together in the correct order at this location via the sequence numbers to get out the original message back without any data degredation occuring as a result of the different paths of transmissions from source to destination.Also no single data channel is dedicated to any given message block in the course of transmission as many units of different messages can be multiplexed and then get demultiplexed at their deffferent destinations correctly since there are codes to differentiate each unit of message, resulting to no conflict at all. Packet switching splits messages into small units and transmitting them to destination using different paths while at the same time keeping tracks or maintaining an orderliness of the units for proper and correct reassembling of the units to get the original message back.Packet switching is generally used in Internet data transmmission where we send data without minding if the link is free or not as far as we are connected and the pieces of information that we sent are then split into smaller units and then sent in packets, with each packets switched through different data channel most times and with no loss at the end. The main advantage of packet-switching is that it permits â€Å"statistical mu ltiplexing† on the communications lines. The packets from many different sources can share a line, allowing for very efficient use of the fixed capacity.With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded (â€Å"dropped†)[6]. Advantages: 1. Since packet are typically short, the communication links between the nodes are only allocated to transferring a single message for a short period of time while transmitting each packet. Longer messages require a series of packets to be sent but do not require the link to be dedicated between the transmission of each packet.The implication is that packets belonging to other messages may be sent between the packets of the message being sent from one node to other node. This provides a much fairer sharing of the resources of each of the links. 2. The ability to do statistical multiplexing which can exploit the i nherent â€Å"burstiness† in many data applications and thereby enable sharing of the network resources more efficiently among multiple data streams is a major advantage. 3. Pipelining†- This simultaneous use of communications links represents a gain in effieciency, the total delay for transmission across a packet network may be considerebly less than for message switching, despite the inclusion of a header in each packet rather than in each message. Disadvantages: 1. Packets arriving in wrong order. 2. Under heavy use there can be delay. 3. Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer. 4. Not so good for some types data streams. Real-time video streams can lose frames due to the way packets arrive out of sequence[7]. ) PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS Circuit Switching In circuit switching, a unique connection is used to move data between the two end user[8]. â€Å"Circuit-Switched type networks† are most commonly portions of the ubiquitous telephone networks to which we ar e all accustomed. In these networks, which generally transmit voice or data, a pribate transmission path is established between any pair or group of users attempting to communicate and is held as long as transmission is required.Telephone networks are typically circuit switched, because voice traffic requires the consistent timing of a single, dedicated physical path to keep a constant delay on the circuit. Figure 2: Example of circuit switching Figure 3: Public circuit switching network Subcribers: The device that attach to the network. Subscriber loop: The link between the subscriber and the network. Exchanges: The switching centers in the network. End office: The switching center that directly supports subscribers. Trunks: The branches between exchanges. They carry multiple voice-frequency circuit using either FDM or synchronous TDM.Figure 4: Circuit establishment Basic performance equation for a single link in a circuit-switched network: Let’s consider a system with N cir cuits on a single link, with customers arriving according to a Poisson process at rate ? customers per second, and with successful customers having a mean holding time of h seconds, distributed as a negative exponential distribution with parameter ? = 1/h. If a customer attempting a new call finds all the circuits busy, there are no waiting places, so we’ll assume that the customer just goes away and forgets about making the call.Define the state of our system by the random variable K, where K represents the number of customers currently in the system, then K can take on any integer value in the range from 0 to N. With these assumptions, our model is simply a state-dependent queue, with arrival rate (independent of the state), and service rate i when the system is in state K=i. This is known as an M/M/N/N queue: Markovian arrivals, Markovian service time, N servers, and a maximum of N customers in the system. We can draw the following Markov chain diagram to represent the sy stem.When there are I customers the service rate is i , which is due to the fact that there are i customers, each with a service rate ? , so the total service rate is i. Figure 5: Markov chain diagram Under conditions of statistical equilibrium, the solution is: pi=AiN! j=0NAjj! Observe that this is simply a truncated Poisson distribution and also the result depends on the traffic A, and not the specific values of ? and ?. To establish a path in circuit switching three consecutive phases are required: 1. Connection establishment. 2. Data transfer. 3.Connection teardown. Elements of a circuit-switch node (Figure 6): * Digital Switch: Provides a trasnparent signal path between any pair of attached devices. * Control Unit: Establishes, maintains and tears down connections. * Network Interface: Functions and hardware needed to connect digital and analog terminals and trunk lines. Figure 6: Circuit switch element Packet Switching In packet switching, data are broken into packets of fixed or variable size, depending on the protocol used. The performance of packet switching is called best effort performance.If you transmit from sender to receiver, all the network will do its best to get the packet to the other end as fast as possible, but there are no guarantees on how fast that packet will arrive. Figure 7: Example of packet switching Packet switching is used to optimize the use of the channel capacity available in digital telecommunication networks such as computer networks, to minimize the transmission latency, the time it takes for data to pass across the network. It is also used to increase robustness of communication. These layers are introduced to break down the complexity of communications.The top layer (layer 7) is the layer at user level. As the layers go down, they get increasingly primitive. Layer is most primitive from as it is just binary numbers prepared to be transmit to the end node. Seven layers of open systems interconnection models are shown in ta ble 1[7]: Layer Number| Name| Description| 1| Pysical Layer| Deals with physical connection between nodes in network. | 2| Data Link Layer| Maintaining and optimising actual connection. | 3| Network Layer| Deals with communication of data on a network. | 4| Transportation Layer| Sequencing, error detection and optimisation of communication. 5| Session Layer| Controls the communication between applications running on end nodes. | 6| Presentation Layer| Format data and provides syntaxes for application. | 7| Application Layer| Contains management functions. | Table 1: Layers of open systems interconnection model Every packet contain some control information in its header, which is required for routing and other purposes. Figure 8: Packet data format Initially, transmission time decreases as packet size is reduced. But, as packet size is reduced and the payload part of a packet becomes comparable to the control part, transmission time increases.Figure 9: Variation of transmission time with packet size. As packet size is decreased, the transmission time reduces until it is comparable to the size of control information. There is a close relationship between packet size and transmission time as shown in Figure 9. In this case it is assumed that there is a virtual circuit from station X to Y through nodes a and b. Times required for transmission decreases as each message is divided into 2 and 5 packets. However, the transmission time increases if each message is divided into 10 packets[9].The packet switched networks allow any host to send data to any other host without reserving the circuit. Multiple paths between a pair of sender and receiver may exist in a packet switched network. One path is selected between source and destination. Whenever the sender has data to send, it converts them into packets and forwards them to next computer or router. The router stores this packet till the output line is free. Then, this packet is transferred to next computer or router ( called as hop). This way, it moves to the destination hop by hop. All the packets belonging to a transmission may or may not take the same route.The route of a packet is decided by network layer protocols. As we know there are two approaches for packet switching which are: 1. Datagram switching, 2. Virtual circuit swtiching. 1. Datagram Switching: Each packet is routed independently through network which is also called connectionless packet-switching. Datagram packet switching sends each packet along the path that is optimal at the time the packet is sent. When a packet traverses the network each intermediate station will need to determine the next hop. Routers in the internet are packet switches that operate in datagraam mode.Each packet may travel by a different path. Each different path will have a different total transmission delay (the number of hops in the path may be different, and the delay across each hop may change for different routes). Therefore, it is possible for the p ackets to arrive at the destination in a different order from the order in which they were sent[10]. Figure 10: Datagram packet switching Figure 11: Delay in datagram packet switching There are three primary types of datagram packet switches: * Store and forward: Buffers data until the entire packet is received and checked for errors.This prevents corrupted packets from propagating throughout the network but increases switching delay. * Fragment free: Filters out most error packets but doesn't necessarily prevent the propagation of errors throughout the network. It offers faster switching speeds and lower delay than store-and-forward mode. * Cut through: Does not filter errors; it switches packets at the highest throughput, offering the least forwarding delay. 2. Virtual Circuit Switching: Virtual circuit packet switching (VC-switching) is a packet switching technique which merges datagram packet switching and circuit switching to extract both of their advantages.VC switching is a v ariation of datagram packet switching where packets flow on so-called logical circuits for which no physical resources like frequencies or time slots are allocated shown in Figure 12. Each packet carries a circuit identifier, which is local to a link and updated by each switch on the path of the packet from its source to its destination[10]. A virtual circuit is defined by the sequence of the mappings between a link taken by packets and the circuit identifier packets carry on this link. In VC-switching, routing is performed at circuit establishment time to keep packet forwarding fast.Other advantages of VC-switching include the traffic engineering capability of circuit switching, and the resources usage efficiency of datagram packet switching. Nevertheless, a main issue of VC-Switched networks is the behavior on a topology change. As opposed to Datagram Packet Switched networks which automatically recompute routing tables on a topology change like a link failure, in VC-switching all virtual circuits that pass through a failed link are interrupted. Hence, rerouting in VC-switching relies on traffic engineering techniques[6].Figure 12: Virtual circuit packet switching Figure 13: Delay on packets in virtual-packet switching 5) APPLICATION OF CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING Circuit Switching 1. Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) The plain old telephone system (POTS) is the largest circuit switched network. The original  GSM  network is also circuit switched. Prior to the existence of new types of networks, all communication systems had to be built based on the existing telecommunications facilities, which were largely oriented to what the common carriers refer to as plain old telephone service, known as POTS.Consequently, even today, in order to use POTS for data communications, it is necessary to use a modem to convert the data to a form suitable for voice-transmission media. The data transmission rate that can be obtained over a POTS connection is typically les s than 64 Kbps. These rates are adequate for text and audio transmission. However, they are not suf? cient for good quality video transmission in real-time. 2. Switched 56 Service Switched 56 service is a dial-up digital service provided by local and long distance telephone companies. For a connection, a data service unit/data channel unit (DSU/CSU) is used instead of a modem.Switched 56 service uses a 64 Kbps channel, but one bit per byte is used for band signaling, leaving 56 Kbps for data. This service allows the transmission of information over one or two twisted cable pairs to multiple points at a data rate of 56 Kpbs. 3. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) The ISDN was designed in the 1980s to offer end-to-end digital connectivity, while providing the required QoS with data rates in the range of Kbps to Mbps over switched connections. In order to provide even higher data rates, the original ISDN was extended to broadband ISDN (BISDN) (Martin, 1985).The ISDN services are provided to users as ISDN interfaces, each comprising a number of ISDN channels. Using 64-Kbps channels, called bearer or B channels, ISDN provides access to the digital network. ISDN provides lower error rate compared to typical voiceband modems and a relatively high bandwidth data channel[11]. Packet Switching 1. VOIP It is becoming increasingly accepted to transmit delay sensitive data through a packet switched network (rather than circuit switched). There are protocols that can create a virtually real-time environment – which, for voice conversations, is sufficient.Voice over IP is essentially a voice signal encoded into a digital format, being sent through a packet switched network (or possibly any other network) using the Internet Protocol (IP). Over recent years there have been standards developed and supported by major companies including ITU-T H. 323. VOIP has a long way to evolve before it is used as widespread as circuit switched networks, but it is well on its wa y. 2. IPv6 The current protocol that is employed almost everywhere IP (IPv4) has come to the end of its useful life. This is mainly because it has run out of addresses to uniquely identify every non-private computer in the world.IPv6 has been deigned to be more efficient than IPv4 and solve the addressing problems that we face at present. Ipv6 will use 128 bits to address nodes, which provides 2128possibilities (roughly3. 4? 1038). It will incorporate a special ‘option mechanism’ to store optional headers in the transport layer (to maximize efficiency by reducing required space). Finally, Ipv6 will have support for resource allocation, allowing packets to be part of a ‘traffic flow’ which will provide better communication of data such as video/voice streams [VOIP]. 6) CONCLUSION In large networks there might be multiple paths  linking sender and receiver.Information may be switched as it travels through various communication channels. Data networks can be classified as using circuit-switching or packet-switching. Packet switching, which forms the basis of the Internet, is a form of statistical multiplexing in which senders divide messages into small packets. The switching centers receive the control signals, messages or conversations and forwards to the required destination, after necessary modification link amplification if necessary. In computer communication, the switching technique used is known as packet switching or message switch (store and forward switching).In telephone network the switching method used is called circuit switching. Circuit switching  is a technique that directly connects the sender and the receiver in an  unbroken path. In the modern and fast paced world, what we are looking for is efficiency, low costs and reliability and packet-switched networks seems to fulfill most of the criteria that the society is looking for. It would only be a matter of time before circuit switching becomes a thing of the past. 7) REFERENCES [1] Stallings, W. , Data and Computer Communications, 7th ed. 1999, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. [2] Notes. com, C.What is Switching. Available from: http://ecomputernotes. com/computernetworkingnotes/computer-network/what-is-switching. [3] ABC, T. , Circuit Switching. 2005. [4] Jia, S. and G. Wang. Network performance analysis of packet-switching C;sup;3;/sup; system. in TENCON '89. Fourth IEEE Region 10 International Conference. 1989. [5] Wikipedia, Packet Switching, 2012, Wikipedia. [6] Torlak, P. M. , Telecommunication Switching and Transmission. Packet Switching and Computer Networks: UTD. [7] Heng Zheng Hann, C. Y. Y. , Fareezul Asyraf, Farhana Binti Mohamad, Fong Poh Yeee, Circuit Switching vs Packet Switching, C.Y. Y. Heng Zheng Hann, Fareezul Asyraf, Farhana Binti Mohamad, Fong Poh Yeee, Editor, Wikibooks. [8] Gebali, F. , Analysisof Computer and Communication. 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